Eastern Provinces
Most sites in the eastern provinces are dominated by the consumption of sheep and goat meat (Fig. 15; Table 5). Percentages range from 30% to nearly 100%, with ox numbers also variable, but ranging up to 50%. Pig is very low, usually under 15%.
The variation in pig percentages is of most interest for this region of the empire, since it is a valuable cultural indicator. Several assemblages have 0% pig bones, notably Jerusalem (Horwitz & Tchernov 1989; Horwitz 1996) and Sumaqa synagogue and workshops (Horwitz et al. 1990). Clearly this is ind icative of Jewish dietary imperatives (Broschi 1986), and reflects a close adherence to the religious ban on the consumption of pork. This was not the case throughout ancient Palestine, however, since other sites do have pig bones, for instance in the Jordan Valley at Tel Anafa (Redding 1994) and adjacent to the Jezreel Valley at Tel Yoqne'am (Horwitz & Dahan 1996). It has also been noted by commentators on the biblical and Talmudic references that pigs were kept in the region, for instance in the Sea of Galilee and Golan areas (Urman 1985, 149; Safrai 1994, 172-3). It is also relevant to note that Jerusalem itself has a very slight presence of pig bones in Iron Age and earlier levels at the City of David sites (Horwitz 1996). It may therefore be the case that the strict application of a ban on pork consumption was at its strongest after this, i.e. in the late first millennium BC and early Imperial periods.
It is also clear that communities of other religions at this time exercised dietary preferences that led to a higher incidence of pork consumption. The Hellenistic levels at Tel Anafa are notable in this respect, since the excavators uncovered a large Greek-style courtyard house, together with luxury imports. This coincides with a relatively high pig percentage, increased beef consumption and greater hunting activity (Redding 1994). It is a high-status Hellenistic pattern that can be linked with assemblages from Greece and eastern Turkey. Interestingly, in the succeeding period, there is lower status occupation and a corresponding increase in sheep and goat numbers, together with a decline in pork consumption. This hints at an imported lifestyle and dietary preference for the Hellenistic period at this site, which was not sustained when the site's status de clined.
Throughout the Near East, the common pattern from very early times (e.g. Jericho: Clutton-Brock 1979; Tell Rubeidheh: Payne 1988) to the medieval period (e.g. Tel Yoqne'am: Horwitz & Dahan 1996; Sumaqa: Horwitz et al.1990; Tel Hesban: Driesch & Boessneck 1995) was one of very low pig numbers, very high sheep and goat numbers with a significant proportion of these being goats, and generally low cattle numbers. Pigs, unless kept in favoured circumstances on wealthy sites, probably had to rely on scavenged material (including excrement), which could account for their not be eaten on the grounds of cleanliness. This could be regarded as the 'natural' pattern for the region, and was clearly one that fitted best with arid and semi-arid environmental constraints, especially for sites near to the margins of subsistence. In effect, the major religious groupings of Judaism and Islam codified this state of affairs.